# Chapter 5: Science & Equipment

Figure Skating · Chapter 5: Science & Equipment · Insporta Book (https://book.insporta.app/figure-skating/interesting-facts/chapter-5-science-equipment/)

The science and kit of skating: why ice is slippery, championship ice and how it is painted and mended, the Zamboni machine and its inventor, the physics of a quad, jump heights measured at Nagano, Guinness records, and how a skate boot is made.

## 5.51 Why Ice Is Slippery

From pressure melting to rolling molecules: what a 2018 study found about the slipperiness of ice.

### Test 1: The slipperiness of ice

- The Irish physicist argued that the local contact pressure is so high that the ice melts. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- The 2018 release notes that liquid water helps, but frictional heat melts it, not pressure. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- These molecules roll over the ice like tiny spheres, driven by thermal vibrations. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- As the temperature rises, more of the fixed molecules turn mobile, and friction falls with it. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- It is the same temperature that speed skating rinks use. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- Close to melting, a sliding object sinks deeper into the softer surface. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- At -100 °C ice turned out to be a high-friction surface, far from slippery. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- Experiments, then spectroscopy, then simulations, which together pointed to mobile surface molecules. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- Lowest friction at -7 °C, harder sliding on soft ice near 0 °C and high friction at -100 °C. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)
- C sits at -7 °C; A is -100 °C, B -50 °C and D 0 °C. (Source: University of Amsterdam, The slipperiness of ice explained (8 May 2018), on Weber et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters)

## 5.52 Ice for a World Championships

How Boston's TD Garden turned hockey ice into figure skating ice for the 2025 Worlds.

### Test 1: Championship ice

- That is an inch or more above the hockey standard. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- Without depth, he said, a skater would just be hitting the concrete beneath. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- Slightly softer ice helps skaters on their landings. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- Figure skaters jump, land and spin; they are not just doing stops, the director said. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- So the whole building ran slightly warmer than on a hockey night. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- That eased the strain on the ice plant as well. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The bull gang started that Friday night, at the final horn. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The crew worked from the final horn onwards so the ice was ready for the skaters. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- Hockey ice ran about 5 degrees colder than the 22 °F of the Worlds; water freezes at 32 °F. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- C is about 2½ inches; A is 1 inch, B 1½ inches and D 4 inches. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))

## 5.53 Painting and Mending the Ice

The gray ice of the 2025 Worlds, the logos and the pluggers who fix the divots.

### Test 1: Painting and mending

- White paint masked everything so nothing would bleed through the new surface. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The Canadian firm's paint covered the lines before the new colour went on. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The ISU logos and the centre logo were laid on top of it. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The cameras sat about 10 feet above the ice. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- Gray reduced the glare those cameras would pick up from a white surface. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- They wore hockey skates and worked just before the resurfacers made new ice. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The thicker, warmer ice still carried some risk of chips and ruts. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- The logos went onto the gray before the final flood. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- Pluggers work just ahead of the resurfacers. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))
- A is the hockey ice, B the white masking paint, C the gray and D the fresh frozen inch of water. (Source: The Boston Globe, How TD Garden prepared for the World Figure Skating Championships (26 March 2025))

## 5.54 The Zamboni Machine

How Frank Zamboni's resurfacer works, and who bought the first machines.

### Test 1: The ice resurfacer

- Too much skating time was lost each day, he thought. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- A blade shaves the ice and the machine collects, washes and floods in one pass. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- His first machine did not work well, and he put the designs aside until 1947. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- The family partnership began production with an improved Model B. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- Frank drove the parts to Chicago himself so the machine could be assembled for her show. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- It is kept in Eveleth, Minnesota. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- It appears before each period of a hockey game, the history notes. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- The used water is filtered and returned to its tank. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- 1950, then Henie's two machines, the Ice Capades in 1952 and ten units in 1954. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- B is ten minutes; A is the 90 minutes three men needed by hand, C and D other times for comparison. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))

## 5.55 Frank Zamboni and Iceland

The inventor behind the machine: block ice, the Iceland rink, a new city and fifteen patents.

### Test 1: The inventor

- He was born in Eureka and grew up on a farm in Idaho. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- They supplied fruit and vegetable packers shipping produce in rail cars. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- In 1939 they sold the business but kept the equipment to build a rink. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- The 100 by 200 foot open-air rink could hold 800 skaters. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- About 150,000 skaters used the rink each year. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- It joined the towns of Hynes and Clearwater; the company is still based there. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- It pumped about 400 gallons a minute and saved several World Series games from rain-outs. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- 1940, 1948, 1949 and 1983. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- 1965, 1988 and 2000, the last after his death. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))
- A is 1927, the ice plant, B 1940, C 1949, the patent application, and D 1983, his last patent. (Source: J. Scafetta Jr., Frank J. Zamboni, Jr.: The Man Behind the Machine (Fra Noi, 2001; reprinted on zamboni.com))

## 5.56 The Physics of a Quad

Airtime, force and angular momentum: what physicists say about the quadruple jump.

### Test 1: Physics of the quad

- All four turns have to fit inside that window. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))
- A person can jump about two feet straight up; athletes roughly double that. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026); Northeastern University College of Science, Figure skating in the 2022 Olympics hinged on quad jumps (24 February 2022))
- Almost all of the rotation must be generated before the skater leaves the ice. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))
- That is close to the fastest spin on record, 342 a minute. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026); Guinness World Records, Fastest spin on ice skates)
- Pulling the arms in doesn't make you spin, the physicist says; it only makes you spin faster. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))
- A compact body turns faster for the same angular momentum. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026); Northeastern University College of Science, Figure skating in the 2022 Olympics hinged on quad jumps (24 February 2022))
- Opening up raises the moment of inertia, which slows the turn. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))
- The landing, she says, is a second physics problem as hard as the take-off. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))
- Out, in and out again: the moment of inertia falls, then rises to slow the turn. (Source: Northeastern University College of Science, Figure skating in the 2022 Olympics hinged on quad jumps (24 February 2022); George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))
- C is more than 550 pounds; B is the triple's roughly 440; A and D are other values for comparison. (Source: George Mason University, On the Blade's Edge of Physics: How Ilia Malinin Lands the Quad Lutz (13 February 2026))

## 5.57 Jump Heights at Nagano 1998

An IOC biomechanics project measured every jump in the women's free skating at the 1998 Olympics.

### Test 1: Measuring jumps

- Researchers from Nagoya and Tsukuba universities analysed the jumps. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- A camera recorded 60 fields a second, and height followed from the time in the air. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- The toe tap lets a skater turn approach speed into height, the authors suggest. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- It averaged 0.518 m; the Lutz is the only jump that turns against its take-off edge. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- One was by Tatiana Malinina, who placed eighth. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- Fewer rotations, fewer toe jumps and fatigue were the possible reasons given. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- The best placed showed the best endurance in keeping their jumps high. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- 0.488 m, 0.451 m, 0.416 m and 0.357 m across all rotations. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- Height came from the formula H = gT²/8, with T the time in the air. (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))
- A is the Axel (0.398), B the Lutz (0.488), C the Salchow (0.357) and D the toe loop (0.416). (Source: Sakurai, Ikegami, Akiya, Asano: Jump Height in Ladies Single Figure Skating at Nagano 1998 (ISBS 1999))

## 5.58 Skating in Guinness World Records

The fastest spin, the most spins on one foot, spins with a partner on the head and record scores.

### Test 1: Records in Guinness

- The Canadian set it on 19 January 2015. (Source: Guinness World Records, Fastest spin on ice skates)
- Warsaw is her birth city. (Source: Guinness World Records, Fastest spin on ice skates)
- Children with life-threatening illnesses in Poland and the youth charity Leave Out Violence. (Source: Guinness World Records, Fastest spin on ice skates)
- The Swiss skater set it at Chelsea Piers Sky Rink in New York. (Source: Guinness World Records, Most continuous upright spins on ice skates)
- The judge was named on the record's page. (Source: Guinness World Records, Most continuous upright spins on ice skates)
- The married professional skaters set the record on 24 June 2024. (Source: Guinness World Records, Most consecutive spins balancing a person on the head while ice skating)
- His total was 280.98; the certificates were presented in Toronto at a Skate Canada reception. (Source: Guinness World Records News, Patrick Chan honoured for triple world record achievement (14 September 2011))
- 2003, 2011, 2015 and 2024. (Source: Guinness World Records (record pages for Ruh, Oliver and the Rappolds; news on Patrick Chan, 2011))
- 93.02, 187.96 and 280.98. (Source: Guinness World Records News, Patrick Chan honoured for triple world record achievement (14 September 2011))
- C is 115 spins; A is the Rappolds' 51, B Chan's 93.02 short program and D Oliver's 342 a minute. (Source: Guinness World Records (record pages for Ruh, Oliver and the Rappolds; news on Patrick Chan, 2011))

## 5.59 Riedell's Story

A boot maker from Red Wing, Minnesota, run by the same family for three generations.

### Test 1: The Riedell company

- They set out to make high-quality, hand-crafted skating boots. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us)
- The company still has its address on Cannon River Avenue there. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us)
- He combined what he learned with his own skating knowledge. (Source: Riedell blog, A Riedell History Lesson (9 August 2012))
- He was honoured on both sides of the sport. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us; Riedell blog, A Riedell History Lesson (9 August 2012))
- Roller rinks were springing up across the country at the time. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us)
- Scott, Bob, Paul and Dan Riegelman carry on the business. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us; Riedell blog, A Riedell History Lesson (9 August 2012))
- The company calls its range the most complete line of ice skates in the world. (Source: Riedell blog, A Riedell History Lesson (9 August 2012))
- From the 1940s, through the late 1960s, to the third generation today. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us)
- Medical books borrowed from a friend were his starting point. (Source: Riedell blog, A Riedell History Lesson (9 August 2012))
- B is a roller skate; A is a figure skate, C a bone runner and D a wooden skate with an iron. (Source: Riedell Ice Skates, Our Story (ice.riedellskates.com/about); Riedell Roller Skates, About Us)

## 5.60 How a Skate Is Made

Cutting, fitting, lasting and finishing: the steps of a figure skate boot at Riedell.

### Test 1: Making a boot

- The company sums them up in five main stages. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- The upper is shaped over it in the lasting stage. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- Fitting follows the cutting of leather and other materials. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- The article lists it among the extra steps, with punching eyelets and roughing the bottom. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- A leather sole is then attached and the blade screwed in place. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- Boots can also be synthetic, hard plastic or a mix of leather and synthetics. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- Other blades are carbon steel, coated high-speed steel or powder metal tool steel. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- From the cut materials to a boxed, inspected boot. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- The blade is the last part fitted, under the sole. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))
- A marks the upper, B the heel, C the shank inside the sole and D the blade. (Source: Riedell blog, Behind the Scenes at Riedell: How Figure Skates Are Made (8 September 2024))

Sources: University of Amsterdam release on Weber et al. (2018); The Boston Globe on TD Garden (2025); the Zamboni history reprinted on zamboni.com; George Mason and Northeastern universities; Sakurai et al., ISBS 1999; Guinness World Records; Riedell's own pages. Riedell's care and fitting advice is KT material and is not asked again. Every fact is recorded with its source in docs/FIGURE_SKATING_VERIFIED_FACTS.md.

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