Football Psychology

Kicks with a chance to win went in far more often than kicks where a miss meant defeat, a sign of how pressure works.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

Rushing the kick looks like an escape from the stress, and those quick kicks were less successful.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

Wood and Wilson found anxiety pulled takers' gaze to the keeper and their shots towards the middle, where he could reach them.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

Stars with many individual awards scored less often, which Jordet linked to the pressure of expectation.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

England's takers turned away from the goalkeeper more than others, and avoidance of this kind went with worse results.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

The taker reads the keeper and places the ball the other way; it needs a calm, slow approach.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

Southgate's staff practised the walk, the ball placement and the timing, so the routine felt familiar under pressure.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · applied

Each stage is a point where pressure builds; research focuses on how takers behave at every one.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

Bar-Eli's goalkeeper study appeared in 2007, Jordet's shoot-out analysis in 2009 and the first-kicker paper in 2010.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · recall

Keepers dive because doing something feels better when they concede than standing still; Bar-Eli called it action bias.

Source: Jordet 2009; Bar-Eli et al. 2007; Wood & Wilson 2010 (penalty research) · applied

Most studies found a clear fall; how much varied by league, and researchers still debate the size.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

Broadcasters and some grounds used recorded noise so the matches sounded more familiar.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

Removing the crowd left the other sources of home advantage in place, which is why it shrank rather than vanished.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

Pollard's work shows home sides taking a smaller share of points than in the early decades, though the edge remains.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

Their small study found players' testosterone higher before home matches, a possible sign of defending territory.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · recall

When both clubs know the ground and the journey is short, several sources of home advantage cancel out.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

Nobody could have designed such a test on purpose: the same leagues, teams and referees, with and without fans.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

Comparing the two periods and correcting for team quality separates the crowd's effect from everything else.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

La Liga returned on 11 June, the Premier League on 17 June and Serie A on 20 June 2020.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

The Bundesliga resumed on 16 May 2020, and its early empty-stadium rounds became the first data on football without fans.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Nevill and colleagues showed crowd noise alone shifted decisions towards the home team.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

Referees gave extra minutes when the home side needed a goal and fewer when it was ahead.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

The effect appears in honest officials: noise and reactions nudge close decisions without any intent.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

The noise that follows an incident gives the referee a cue about how serious it looked.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

Clear-cut decisions leave no room; it is the judgement calls where crowd pressure shows.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

Without the crowd, away teams were booked about as often as home teams, which studies read as evidence of crowd influence on referees.

Source: Home-advantage research (Pollard; Neave & Wolfson 2003; studies of the 2020-21 empty-stadium seasons) · applied

A referee from a third country removes one obvious source of doubt about his decisions.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

The same tackles judged with and without noise let the researchers isolate the crowd's effect.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

Nevill published in 2002, Sutter and Kocher in 2004, Garicano and colleagues in 2005 and Dohmen in 2008.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · recall

Dohmen found referees favoured the home side less in stadiums with an athletics track, where the crowd is further away.

Source: Nevill, Balmer & Williams 2002; Sutter & Kocher 2004; Garicano et al. 2005; Dohmen 2008 · applied

Gilovich, Vallone and Tversky studied shooting records in basketball.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · recall

They found no more hits after hits than chance would give, and called the belief a cognitive illusion.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · recall

They found a statistical bias in the 1985 method; corrected, the data suggest a modest hot hand. The debate continues.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

Across leagues, a two-goal lead is converted into a win in the vast majority of matches.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

Even equally matched teams will show streaks by chance, which the mind reads as momentum or form.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

Past results do not make the next one more likely to go the other way, but people expect the run to balance out.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

Momentum is shorthand for a period of pressure; whether it makes the next goal more likely is disputed.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

Each extra goal of cushion makes the win more likely; a 3-0 half-time lead is almost never lost.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

The last step is the one Miller and Sanjurjo added, and it changed the answer.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

The belief is that success breeds success; research long called it an illusion and now finds at most a small effect.

Source: Gilovich, Vallone & Tversky 1985; Miller & Sanjurjo 2018; match data · applied

Players said it felt like a hairdryer blowing in their face; Ferguson used it sparingly and knew when not to.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

The motivational film, set to music from Gladiator, was shown just before the players left for the stadium.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Tired players with adrenaline still running absorb little; a few clear points get through.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Coaches often wait a couple of minutes so players calm down and take on fluids before the talk.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

A ten-second clip of the gap they keep leaving is clearer than a description of it.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

The huddle pulls attention together at the last moment, usually led by the captain.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

A message from a respected team-mate can carry a weight a coach's words do not.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Recovery comes first, the details second, and the manager's main message last before the players leave.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

The tactical detail usually comes at the hotel, the final message in the dressing room and the huddle just before kick-off.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Players cool quickly in the dressing room, so many teams go back out early to warm up again.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

The Robert Enke Foundation supports research and help for depression and heart disease in sport.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · recall

Football's competitive culture makes players worry that admitting a problem will count against them.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · applied

Heads Up used the whole season, including the FA Cup final, to encourage people to talk about mental health.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · recall

Rose described his depression before the 2018 World Cup, one of the first current England players to do so.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · recall

The players' union runs a round-the-clock line and a counselling network; in an emergency, call the emergency services.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · recall

A life organised around training and matches ends suddenly, often in a player's thirties.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · applied

First aiders are not therapists; their job is to notice, listen and guide people to professional support.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · applied

The first conversation matters most; after it, the club's job is to get the right professional involved quickly.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · applied

A gradual return, as with a physical injury, lets the player and club check he is ready at each step.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · applied

FIFPRO's study found symptoms in 38% of current and 35% of former players, and pushed clubs to take mental health seriously.

Source: FIFPRO 2015 study; FA and PFA welfare programmes · recall

Expectation turns a win into the minimum and a defeat into a failure, which weighs on players.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Vickers' research links a longer, steady final fixation with better accuracy under pressure.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Choking is a drop below a player's normal level caused by the pressure of the moment.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Under pressure players monitor their technique step by step, which disrupts a skill they usually perform without thinking.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Changing everything for a big match signals that it is different; keeping the normal routine keeps it familiar.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Terry's kick hit the post after he slipped in the Moscow rain; Manchester United won the shoot-out.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

With so much at stake, both sides tend to limit risk until the match settles.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Chelsea were one kick from victory; after Terry's miss the shoot-out went to sudden death and Anelka's kick was saved.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

A fixed routine gives the mind a familiar sequence to follow when the pressure rises.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Ronaldo was left off the first team sheet after the fit, then reinstated; Brazil lost the final 3-0 to France.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Grange, a psychologist, worked on the culture and mental side of the squad before the 2018 World Cup.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Peters, known for his work with British Cycling, joined Liverpool in 2012 and England's World Cup staff in 2014.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Routines give players a familiar series of steps before free kicks, penalties or throw-ins, which steadies them under pressure.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Players picture a skill in detail, sights, sounds and feel included, to prepare for doing it for real.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Short phrases such as 'stay tall' or 'next ball' direct attention and steady nerves.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

If what a player says could reach selection, he would say less; separation protects the trust the work needs.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Performance work covers focus, confidence and routines; illness is for clinicians, and good clubs have both routes.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Relaxation clears the mind, the scene sets the context, then the actions and a successful outcome are rehearsed.

Source: Coaching and sport-psychology literature · applied

Hermann started in 2004, Peters was with England at the 2014 World Cup, and Grange joined the FA in 2017.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Hermann has been part of Germany's staff under Klinsmann, Löw and their successors, including the 2014 World Cup win.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

In many teams the captain was not seen as the best leader in every role; leadership was spread across players.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

Motivational leaders keep energy and belief up on the pitch, separate from the one who organises tactics.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

Leaders who are seen as 'one of us' and champion the group's identity gain influence, whatever their title.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

A player whose standards and effort others copy can lead without speeches.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

Being the most talented does not make someone good at organising or motivating others.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

Kompany lifted the trophy in 2012, 2014, 2018 and 2019 before leaving to become Anderlecht's player-manager.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

Strong, spread leadership went with a stronger shared belief in the team's ability.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

Asking the players themselves reveals the real leadership network, which the staff can then build on.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

The Leicester goal came on 6 May 2019, the title on 12 May, the FA Cup final on 18 May and his farewell the next day.

Source: Match and club reports (BBC Sport, The Athletic, club statements) · recall

The external leader represents the team to the club, the media and officials, alongside task, motivational and social leaders.

Source: Fransen et al. 2014 (shared leadership in football teams); Haslam et al. · applied

The abuse after the Wembley shoot-out brought wide condemnation and several prosecutions.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · recall

From 30 April to 3 May 2021, clubs, players and governing bodies stopped posting to press the platforms to act.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · recall

Players or officials report it, and the referee stops play and sets the steps in motion.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · recall

The app lets fans report discriminatory abuse at matches or online, which is passed on to clubs and authorities.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · applied

The case, from a match at Mestalla in May 2023, was described as the first such conviction in Spanish football.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · recall

Football banning orders stop a person attending matches, and can require him to hand in his passport for tournaments abroad.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · applied

Much online abuse comes from accounts that cannot be linked to a person, which slows prosecutions.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · applied

Each step comes only if the abuse continues after the one before.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · applied

Evidence is kept first; the platform and police then work to trace the sender before any prosecution.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · applied

The campaign, set up in 1993, became the organisation Kick It Out in 1997.

Source: UEFA anti-racism protocol; Kick It Out; court reports · recall