Sports Science & Recovery

IFAB allowed EPTS in matches from 2015, as long as the device is safe and meets the approved standard.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · recall

A snug vest keeps the unit high on the back, where it has a clear view of the sky and moves least.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · recall

Deep stands and roofs block satellite signals, so antennas around the ground track the players instead.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

High-speed running is distance above a speed threshold, often around 20 km/h, whatever the player was doing.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

There is no single official threshold, so the numbers depend on which speeds a provider or club calls a sprint.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

Accelerations and decelerations capture the short, sharp efforts that distance totals miss.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

Cameras follow all twenty-two players and the ball, while a vest only records the player who wears it.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

Charles Reep notated matches by hand from the 1950s, camera tracking systems such as Prozone came in the late 1990s, and IFAB allowed wearables in 2015.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · recall

The numbers are only useful once cleaned and shared, and their purpose is to shape the following days' work.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

The fastest band is also the shortest: a player sprints only a few hundred metres in a whole match.

Source: IFAB Laws of the Game (EPTS, 2015); FIFA EPTS quality programme; sports-science literature · applied

Tracking studies of top leagues put most outfield players between about ten and twelve kilometres.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · recall

A side that runs a lot without the ball is chasing; the split shows whether effort went into attacking or defending.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · applied

Keepers move constantly with play but rarely sprint, and usually cover around half an outfield player's distance.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · recall

Barnes and colleagues found high-intensity and sprint distance up by roughly a third between 2006-07 and 2012-13.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · recall

Ten kilometres of jogging is easier than eight with many sprints; coaches look at how fast and when the work was done.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · applied

Pressing is repeated fast running to close down opponents, which shows up as high-intensity work out of possession.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · applied

Effective playing time can vary by ten minutes or more between matches, and running falls with it.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · applied

In Premier League data centre-backs cover least, then centre-forwards, then full-backs, with central midfielders covering most.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · recall

Pressing turns a low-intensity phase into a burst of sprinting the moment the ball is lost, followed by a recovery.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · applied

A wing-back is the only player on his side, so he attacks the byline and defends his own box, often sprinting between them.

Source: Bradley et al. 2009; Barnes et al. 2014 (Premier League match demands) · applied

Clubs count days from the match: MD+1 is the day after, MD-1 the day before.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · recall

The day before a match is kept short and sharp, often including set-piece rehearsal, so players arrive fresh.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

Other methods help at the margins; enough good sleep is the foundation of recovery in every consensus paper.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · recall

Cold water eases soreness, but some studies suggest regular use after strength work reduces its effect; the evidence is still debated.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

Chambers use air far below freezing for two or three minutes, and are used by some clubs to ease soreness.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · recall

Easy movement keeps players loose without adding strain; those who did not play usually train harder instead.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

Players rate how they slept and how they feel, which helps staff spot who needs a lighter day.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

Sunday is MD+1 and Monday MD+2; counting back from the next Saturday, Thursday is MD-2 and Friday MD-1.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

Recovery starts on the pitch, continues with food on the way home and depends most on the sleep that follows.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

Saturday 15:00 to Tuesday 15:00 is 72 hours, and the evening kick-off adds five more.

Source: Sports-science consensus on recovery in football · applied

The 11+ replaces a team's usual warm-up with running, strength, balance and jumping exercises.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · recall

F-MARC worked with the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center and the Santa Monica Orthopaedic group.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · recall

Studies show the effect when teams use it regularly, at least twice a week, as their normal warm-up.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · recall

Building injury prevention into the warm-up means it happens every session without taking extra time.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · applied

The programme targets knees, ankles and muscles, where many injuries happen without contact.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · applied

The 11+ Kids adapts the idea for younger players, with more emphasis on balance and falling technique.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · recall

The benefit depends on compliance; teams that drop it after a few weeks lose the protection.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · applied

The programme opens with easy running, moves to strength and balance work and finishes with faster running.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · applied

It only works if coaches can teach it correctly and the team makes it routine.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · applied

The 11+ group had roughly a third fewer injuries than teams that kept their usual warm-up.

Source: FIFA 11+ manual; Soligard et al., BMJ 2008 · applied

Hamstring injuries make up the largest single share of injuries at elite clubs in the UEFA study.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · recall

Swedish professor Jan Ekstrand has run the study, which follows injuries at dozens of top European clubs.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · recall

Ekstrand's group reported hamstring injuries increasing year on year, especially in training, as the game got faster.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · recall

The exercise needs no equipment, but compliance is the problem: it is demanding and sore until players get used to it.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · applied

Trials in Danish and Dutch amateur football found hamstring injuries roughly halved in the groups doing the exercise.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · recall

Re-injury rates are high, so rehabilitation has to be complete before a player sprints again in matches.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · applied

Most hamstring strains cost a few weeks, though severe ones involving the tendon can take months.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · recall

Each stage tests the muscle a little more, ending with full-speed sprinting in training before a match.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · applied

A mild hamstring strain costs weeks, a broken foot bone around two months, and an ACL rupture six to nine months or more.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · applied

Most hamstring injuries happen during high-speed running, when the muscle is stretched as the leg swings through.

Source: UEFA Elite Club Injury Study (Ekstrand); Petersen 2011; van der Horst 2015 · applied

The round-of-16 tie in Fortaleza on 29 June 2014 stopped for cooling breaks in the heat.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · recall

The WBGT combines heat, humidity, sun and wind; above 32°C FIFA's guidance calls for cooling breaks.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · recall

In hot countries and hot months an evening kick-off avoids the worst of the day's heat.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · applied

Sweat cools only when it evaporates, and it evaporates less in humid air, so humidity raises the heat risk.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · applied

Drinks breaks are brief; cooling breaks give players a few minutes out of the sun with water and ice.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · applied

Cold towels on the neck and cold fluids out of the sun bring the temperature down quickly in the short time available.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · applied

Several matches kicked off in the early afternoon for European television, in heat players called dangerous.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · recall

The first cooling break came in Brazil in 2014, Qatar's World Cup was played in winter in 2022, and the Club World Cup heat row was in 2025.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · recall

The stop comes around the 30th minute of each half, lasts about three minutes, and coaches use it to talk.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · applied

In heat, competitions schedule a cooling break around the midpoint of each half.

Source: FIFA heat guidance; match reports · applied

UEFA's procedure lets the referee stop play for up to three minutes while the team doctor examines the player.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

The guidance limited heading practice around matches and to one session a week.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

The coroner ruled Astle died of an industrial disease, a brain condition linked to years of heading heavy balls.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

Heading practice was removed for the youngest age groups and limited for older children.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

The graduated return lets adults play competitively from day 21 at the earliest, and only with no symptoms; younger players wait longer.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

Activity increases one stage at a time, and any returning symptom sends the player back a step.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · applied

The referee may stop play, but the player continues only if the team doctor confirms he is fit to do so.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

Each stage lasts at least a day and a player moves on only if he has no symptoms.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · applied

The referee's stoppage gives the doctor time to examine the player on the pitch before the decision.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · applied

The FIELD study found former professionals about three and a half times as likely to die of neurodegenerative disease, but with lower death rates from other common causes.

Source: UEFA and FA concussion guidance; Mackay et al., NEJM 2019 (FIELD study) · recall

Thinner air holds less oxygen, so players who live at sea level tire faster until they adapt.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · applied

Johannesburg's stadiums, including Soccer City where the final was played, sit on the high veld.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · recall

Maradona's side lost 6-1 in a World Cup qualifier in April 2009, one of Argentina's heaviest defeats.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · recall

Less air resistance means shots and long passes carry further and faster, which unsettles visiting goalkeepers.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · applied

Arriving within a day avoids the worst of the early symptoms; the alternative is to arrive a couple of weeks early to adapt.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · applied

Morales played on a pitch near the summit of Sajama to show that football at altitude was possible.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · recall

Home players live and train at altitude, while most visitors arrive without time to adapt.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · applied

Mexico City is about 2,240 m, Bogotá about 2,640 m, Quito about 2,850 m and La Paz about 3,600 m.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · recall

The ban came in May 2007 and the limit was raised to 3,000 metres a month later; after a year of protests led by Bolivia, FIFA suspended it in 2008.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · recall

La Paz is the world's highest capital to host international football regularly.

Source: FIFA decisions 2007-08; match reports · recall

Group matches were kept within western, central and eastern clusters so teams did not cross the continent between games.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · recall

The city in the rainforest meant long flights and draining humidity, which England and others complained about.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · recall

Travelling the day before lets the squad recover from the trip and hold its last session before the match.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · applied

Several time zones and hot, humid matches make it harder to build fitness in the weeks before the season.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · applied

Teams pick one base for the tournament and fly out to matches, so their routine stays the same.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · applied

The eight stadiums sat in and around Doha, so teams needed no flights between matches.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · recall

A charter leaves when the club wants, straight after a match if needed, and lets players rest on board.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · applied

UEFA allows an official session at the stadium on the eve of the match, and most clubs fly home the same night.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · applied

Canada had two host cities, Mexico three and the United States eleven.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · recall

Australia now travels to the Middle East, East Asia and South-East Asia, often across many time zones in one window.

Source: FIFA and UEFA regulations; match reports · applied

Team doctors and paramedics began CPR within seconds and used a defibrillator on the pitch in Copenhagen.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · recall

An ICD sits under the skin and shocks the heart if a dangerous rhythm returns; Eriksen played on for Brentford and Manchester United.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · recall

Muamba's heart did not beat on its own for 78 minutes; he survived after long resuscitation but retired from football.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · recall

The Advanced Trauma Medical Management in Football course trains doctors for emergencies on the pitch itself.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · recall

It sets out who does what, where the equipment is and how an ambulance reaches the pitch, and it is practised in advance.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · applied

Screening with questionnaires and ECGs picks up rare conditions that can cause sudden cardiac arrest in sport.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · applied

Once the referee waves them on, the medical staff assess the player and decide whether he can go on.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · applied

Every minute counts: early CPR and early defibrillation give the best chance of survival.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · applied

The questionnaire and ECG come first; an echocardiogram follows only if something needs a closer look.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · applied

Minutes matter in a cardiac arrest, so the defibrillator has to be at the side of the pitch, not in a room or outside.

Source: Premier League and UEFA medical regulations; match reports · applied