Ageing and Masters Physiology

Their 2001 meta-analysis of 351 studies gave HRmax = 208 - 0.7 x age, reducing the error of 220 - age in older adults.

Source: Tanaka, Monahan & Seals, J Am Coll Cardiol 2001 · recall

The formula traces to a 1971 summary of scattered data and was never derived from a proper study.

Source: Robergs & Landwehr, J Exerc Physiol Online 2002 · recall

Prediction formulas carry a standard deviation of roughly 10-12 beats per minute, so individuals vary widely.

Source: Tanaka, Monahan & Seals, J Am Coll Cardiol 2001 · recall

Maximal heart rate falls with age in trained and untrained people alike.

Source: Tanaka, Monahan & Seals, J Am Coll Cardiol 2001 · recall

The sinoatrial node's intrinsic rate and the heart's response to adrenaline both decline with age.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Because individual maxima scatter widely around formula values, a measured maximum or threshold gives more accurate zones.

Source: Tanaka, Monahan & Seals, J Am Coll Cardiol 2001 · applied

Karvonen intensity is resting heart rate plus a percentage of heart rate reserve.

Source: Karvonen et al., Ann Med Exp Biol Fenn 1957 · recall

Beta-blockers blunt heart rate at rest and in exercise, so zones should be reset or effort and power used instead.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · applied

Fitness depends on cardiac output (rate and stroke volume) and oxygen extraction, not heart rate alone.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · applied

Gellish's longitudinal data gave HRmax = 207 - 0.7 x age, almost the same as Tanaka's 208 - 0.7 x age.

Source: Gellish et al., Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007 · recall

With maximal heart rate falling about 0.7 beats per year, maximal cardiac output declines even if stroke volume is maintained.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Arteries stiffen with age, but endurance-trained older adults have less stiff arteries than sedentary peers.

Source: Tanaka et al., Circulation 2000 · recall

People who exercised 4-5 times a week over their lifetime had ventricles as compliant as much younger adults.

Source: Bhella et al., J Am Coll Cardiol 2014 · recall

Poorer compliance reduces filling during diastole, especially at the short filling times of high heart rates.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Athletes who maintained training intensity lost less VO2max than those who reduced it.

Source: Pollock et al., J Appl Physiol 1997 · recall

Masters athletes tend to keep their threshold at a similar or higher fraction of a declining VO2max.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Studies find economy is broadly preserved in trained older runners, so the decline is driven mainly by VO2max.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Blood pressure generally rises with age; regular aerobic exercise lowers it by several mmHg on average.

Source: Cornelissen & Smart, J Am Heart Assoc 2013 · recall

Endurance training preserves an expanded blood volume at older ages, supporting stroke volume.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

A preserved threshold with falling VO2max means the athlete works at a higher fraction of maximum.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · applied

The 2019 revision puts low muscle strength first, with low muscle quantity or quality confirming the diagnosis.

Source: Cruz-Jentoft et al., Age Ageing 2019 · recall

Muscle mass falls roughly 1% a year, strength about 1.5-3%, so strength loss outpaces mass.

Source: Mitchell et al., Front Physiol 2012 · recall

Clark and Manini coined the term to separate the loss of strength from the loss of muscle mass.

Source: Clark & Manini, J Gerontol A 2008 · recall

Power, the product of force and speed, declines faster than strength, because contraction velocity falls too.

Source: Reid & Fielding, Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2012 · recall

Ageing muscle shows preferential atrophy of type II (fast) fibres.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Denervated fibres are reinnervated by surviving units, creating fewer but larger motor units.

Source: Hepple & Rice, J Physiol 2016 · recall

Lifelong runners in their mid-60s had more motor units than age-matched non-runners, suggesting training delays loss.

Source: Power et al., Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010 · recall

Chronic exercise appeared to preserve lean thigh muscle and limit fat infiltration across ages.

Source: Wroblewski et al., Phys Sportsmed 2011 · recall

Eight weeks of high-intensity resistance training increased strength by about 174% in frail nonagenarians.

Source: Fiatarone et al., JAMA 1990 · recall

Fast, moderate-load training targets the steep decline in power, which matters for function and fall prevention.

Source: Reid & Fielding, Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2012 · applied

Older muscle synthesises less new protein from the same meal or exercise stimulus.

Source: Breen & Phillips, Nutr Metab 2011 · recall

Older men needed roughly 0.40 g/kg per meal against 0.24 g/kg for young men to maximise the response.

Source: Moore et al., J Gerontol A 2015 · recall

PROT-AGE recommended 1.0-1.2 g/kg/day for healthy older adults, more for those who are active or ill.

Source: Bauer et al., J Am Med Dir Assoc 2013 (PROT-AGE) · recall

Leucine activates mTOR signalling; a higher leucine dose helps overcome anabolic resistance.

Source: Breen & Phillips, Nutr Metab 2011 · recall

Distributing adequate doses across meals gives repeated synthesis responses, which matters more with anabolic resistance.

Source: Bauer et al., J Am Med Dir Assoc 2013 (PROT-AGE) · recall

Casein taken before sleep was digested and absorbed and raised overnight muscle protein synthesis in older men.

Source: Kouw et al., J Nutr 2017 · recall

Exercise sensitises muscle to amino acids, partly offsetting anabolic resistance.

Source: Breen & Phillips, Nutr Metab 2011 · recall

Meta-analysis found creatine plus resistance training increased lean mass and strength more than training alone.

Source: Chilibeck et al., Open Access J Sports Med 2017 · recall

Bringing each meal up to an effective dose makes better use of protein across the day.

Source: Moore et al., J Gerontol A 2015 · applied

The "anorexia of ageing" lowers food intake, so protein-dense choices help meet needs.

Source: Bauer et al., J Am Med Dir Assoc 2013 (PROT-AGE) · recall

Over two-thirds of masters cyclists had osteopenia of the spine or hip, despite years of training.

Source: Nichols et al., Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003 · recall

Reeves found 14 weeks of resistance training increased tendon stiffness in older adults.

Source: Reeves et al., J Physiol 2003 · recall

Ruptures cluster in middle-aged recreational athletes, often during sudden push-off.

Source: Lemme et al., Orthop J Sports Med 2018 · recall

Recreational runners had about 3.5% prevalence against 10.2% in sedentary controls and 13.3% in elite runners.

Source: Alentorn-Geli et al., J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2017 · recall

Non-impact sports provide little osteogenic stimulus, so added jumping, running or lifting helps protect bone.

Source: Nichols et al., Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003 · applied

Women lose bone more quickly in the years after menopause; men lose it more gradually.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Cartilage relies on loading and unloading to move nutrients; moderate activity supports its health.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Lower bone density and slower reactions raise the risk that a crash or fall causes a fracture.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Advanced glycation cross-links and lower water content change tendon mechanical behaviour with age.

Source: Svensson et al., J Appl Physiol 2016 · recall

Heavy resistance and impact loading are the most effective training stimuli for bone.

Source: Watson et al., J Bone Miner Res 2018 · applied

Older adults feel less thirsty for the same degree of dehydration and restore fluid more slowly.

Source: Kenney & Chiu, Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001 · recall

Reduced urine-concentrating ability means older adults lose more water and restore balance more slowly.

Source: Kenney & Chiu, Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001 · recall

Older adults show reduced skin blood flow and sweating, lowering heat loss capacity.

Source: Kenney & Munce, J Appl Physiol 2003 · recall

When older adults are fit and acclimatised, many of the differences from young adults shrink.

Source: Kenney & Munce, J Appl Physiol 2003 · recall

Reduced ability to constrict skin vessels and generate heat raises hypothermia risk.

Source: Kenney & Munce, J Appl Physiol 2003 · recall

Diuretics reduce plasma volume and beta-blockers limit heart rate and skin blood flow responses.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Because thirst is blunted, older athletes may need a planned intake, while still avoiding overdrinking.

Source: Kenney & Chiu, Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001 · applied

Older adults adapt to repeated heat exposure, although some responses may be smaller or slower.

Source: Kenney & Munce, J Appl Physiol 2003 · recall

Competing demands for skin and muscle blood flow, with lower fluid reserves, raise cardiovascular strain.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Blunted thirst and reduced renal water conservation slow the restoration of fluid balance.

Source: Kenney & Chiu, Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001 · recall

Records decline modestly until about 60-70 and then accelerate.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Analyses of Ironman age groups found cycling declines least, with running and swimming declining more.

Source: Lepers, Knechtle & Stapley, Sports Med 2013 · recall

Peak Ironman performance falls in the early to mid-thirties, later than in short events.

Source: Gallmann et al., Springerplus 2014 · recall

Endurance, economy and race craft develop over years and outweigh early declines in speed.

Source: Lepers, Knechtle & Stapley, Sports Med 2013 · recall

The share of finishers over 40, and especially over 50, has risen markedly.

Source: Lepers, Knechtle & Stapley, Sports Med 2013 · recall

More participants raise the chance of an exceptional performer, so rising participation can mask decline.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · applied

Running depends on elastic recoil and impact tolerance, which age hits harder than the supported pedalling of cycling.

Source: Lepers, Knechtle & Stapley, Sports Med 2013 · recall

Winning ages drifted upward, reflecting the late peak of long-course performance.

Source: Lepers, Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008 · recall

The gap often widens in older age groups, partly reflecting fewer female participants.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Cycling performance typically declines less with age than running, as masters data show.

Source: Lepers, Knechtle & Stapley, Sports Med 2013 · applied

Lifelong endurance athletes averaged a VO2max of about 38 ml/kg/min against about 21 for untrained peers.

Source: Trappe et al., J Appl Physiol 2013 · recall

Their muscle had capillary and aerobic enzyme levels similar to young exercisers.

Source: Trappe et al., J Appl Physiol 2013 · recall

The cyclists showed higher thymic output of new T cells and fewer markers of immunosenescence.

Source: Duggal et al., Aging Cell 2018 · recall

Regular exercise preserves insulin sensitivity and glucose control with age.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Lifelong exercisers generally carry less total and visceral fat than sedentary peers, which supports metabolic health.

Source: Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise (8th ed.) · recall

Riders had about 41% lower mortality than the general French male population.

Source: Marijon et al., Eur Heart J 2013 · recall

Olympic medallists gained a survival advantage of about 2.8 years.

Source: Clarke et al., BMJ 2012 · recall

Training slows many declines but cannot stop ageing of the heart's pacemaker, muscle and connective tissue entirely.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Athletes who kept training into old age may differ from those who stopped, so not all benefits can be credited to training.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Lifelong training preserves aerobic enzymes, capillaries and motor units compared with sedentary peers.

Source: Trappe et al., J Appl Physiol 2013 · applied

Surveys and reviews find masters athletes commonly perceive slower recovery, though measured differences vary.

Source: Fell & Williams, J Aging Phys Act 2008 · recall

Findings vary with training status and the type of exercise, so the picture is not settled.

Source: Fell & Williams, J Aging Phys Act 2008 · recall

Fewer and less responsive satellite cells, especially in type II fibres, may slow repair and growth.

Source: Verdijk et al., Age 2014 · recall

The proportion of slow-wave sleep falls across adulthood, which may affect recovery.

Source: Ohayon et al., Sleep 2004 · recall

Studies show older adults respond to HIIT with improved VO2max and mitochondrial capacity.

Source: Robinson et al., Cell Metab 2017 · recall

Older participants showed a larger relative gain in mitochondrial protein synthesis and capacity than younger ones.

Source: Robinson et al., Cell Metab 2017 · recall

Longer micro-cycles let hard sessions be spaced more widely while keeping their quality.

Source: Friel, Fast After 50 (2015) · applied

Older muscle still responds to exercise, but the synthetic response is typically blunted.

Source: Breen & Phillips, Nutr Metab 2011 · recall

Studies of masters athletes link maintained intensity, not volume, to smaller declines in aerobic capacity.

Source: Pollock et al., J Appl Physiol 1997 · recall

Spacing hard sessions protects quality and recovery while keeping the intensity that preserves fitness.

Source: Fell & Williams, J Aging Phys Act 2008 · applied

Mortality was about 39% lower at 3-5 times the minimum, with no sign of harm up to ten times.

Source: Arem et al., JAMA Intern Med 2015 · recall

Elite cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with the lowest long-term mortality.

Source: Mandsager et al., JAMA Netw Open 2018 · recall

Low fitness predicted mortality as strongly as, or more strongly than, smoking or diabetes.

Source: Mandsager et al., JAMA Netw Open 2018 · recall

Older adults should do varied multicomponent activity with balance and strength on three or more days a week.

Source: Bull et al., Br J Sports Med 2020 (WHO guidelines) · recall

Frailty is lower physiological reserve across systems, raising vulnerability to illness, falls and disability.

Source: Clegg et al., Lancet 2013 · recall

Higher physical activity is consistently associated with a lower risk of dementia.

Source: Livingston et al., Lancet 2020 (Lancet Commission) · recall

Health span counts years free of serious disease and disability, which exercise extends.

Source: Tanaka & Seals, J Physiol 2008 · recall

Balance deteriorates with age, and falls are a major cause of injury; triathlon alone does not train it well.

Source: Bull et al., Br J Sports Med 2020 (WHO guidelines) · applied

People who become active in mid or later life still gain large reductions in mortality risk.

Source: Saint-Maurice et al., JAMA Netw Open 2019 · recall

For most older adults the health gains of vigorous activity outweigh the risks, especially with medical guidance.

Source: Mandsager et al., JAMA Netw Open 2018 · applied